Cognitive and motivational numeracy parenting practices: Implications for children's numeracy engagement during early elementary school.

Parents are considered a major resource in children's numeracy development. The relative role of cognitive and motivational parenting practices, however, is unclear given that the two types of practices have largely been studied in isolation. The current study simultaneously estimated the contributions of several cognitive and motivational parenting practices hypothesized to be important, but which may have overlapping effects. To capture parents' cognitive practices, the level and structure (i.e., prompts vs. statements) of 529 American parents' (80% mothers; 65% White, 20% Black; 33% less than a bachelor's degree) numeracy talk was coded during a challenging numeracy activity. Parents' motivational practices were assessed by coding their autonomy support and control in the activity. Children's (Mage = 7.5 years; 49% girls) engagement of numeracy strategies was also coded. Multilevel minute-to-minute modeling predicting children's engagement from both cognitive and motivational parenting practices indicated that parents' cognitive practices, particularly advanced prompts, predicted children's subsequent engagement of numeracy strategies, which were often advanced. Parents' motivational practices, as reflected in their autonomy support (vs. control), also foreshadowed children's engagement. These effects of the two types of practices were independent of one another. Taken together, the findings are consistent with the idea that cognitive and motivational parenting practices provide distinct resources that can benefit children's math learning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Maternal autonomy support and intrusive control in the United States and China: Moment-to-moment associations with preschoolers' agency and defeat.

This study examines the moment-to-moment within-person associations between maternal and child behaviors during a challenging puzzle task and compares these associations between mother-child dyads from the United States (n = 99, 52 boys, Mchild age = 56.05 months, SD = 6.44) and China (n = 101, 46 boys, Mchild age = 57.41 months, SD = 6.58). Maternal autonomy support and intrusive control and child agency and defeat were rated in 15-s intervals by native and bicultural coders. Country was examined as a moderator of the moment-to-moment within-person associations between maternal and child behaviors. The results showed that for both U.S. and Chinese dyads, increases in maternal intrusive control predicted subsequent decreases in child agency, and increases in child defeat predicted subsequent increases in maternal autonomy support. Furthermore, increases in maternal autonomy support predicted subsequent increases in child defeat, but for the Chinese dyads only. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Parents' math anxiety and their controlling and autonomy-supportive involvement in children's math learning: Implications for children's math achievement.

This research examined how parents' math anxiety is associated with their controlling and autonomy-supportive involvement in children's math learning; the contribution of such involvement to children's math achievement was also evaluated. Parents (N = 562; 62% White, 21% Black; 65% with at least a bachelor's degree) of young elementary school children (Mage = 7.48 years; 50% girls) reported on their math anxiety as well as controlling and autonomy-supportive involvement in children's math learning; observations were also made. At the same time and a year later, children's math achievement was assessed. Parents with higher math anxiety were more controlling (in both parents' reports and the observations) and less autonomy supportive (only in the observations) with children who had poorer math achievement. Notably, controlling parenting (in both parents' reports and the observations) was most likely to predict lower math achievement a year later among such children. The findings suggest math-anxious parents are prone to using practices with children struggling in math that further undermine their math achievement, which can create an unconstructive cycle for children's math learning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Parents' responses to children's math performance in early elementary school: Links with parents' math beliefs and children's math adjustment.

A new parent-report measure was used to examine parents' person and process responses to children's math performance. Twice over a year from 2017 to 2020, American parents (N = 546; 80% mothers, 20% other caregivers; 62% white, 21% Black, 17% other) reported their responses and math beliefs; their children's (Mage  = 7.48 years; 50% girls, 50% boys) math adjustment was also assessed. Factor analyses indicated parents' person and process responses to children's math success and failure represent four distinct, albeit related, responses. Person (vs. process) responses were less common and less likely to accompany views of math ability as malleable and failure as constructive (|r|s = .16-.23). The more parents used person responses, the poorer children's later math adjustment (|ß|s = .06-.16).

Parents' daily involvement in children's math homework and activities during early elementary school.

This research examined parents' involvement in children's math homework and activities. During 2017 to 2019, American parents (N = 483; 80% mothers; 67% white) of young elementary school children (Mage  = 7.47 years; 50% girls) reported on their math helping self-efficacy; they also reported on their involvement in children's math homework and activities daily for 12 days. At this time and a year later, children's math motivation and achievement were assessed. Parents' involvement in homework (vs. activities) was more affectively negative (d = .34), particularly among parents low in self-efficacy (d = .23). The more affectively negative parents' involvement, particularly in homework, the poorer children's later math motivation and achievement (ßs = -.09 to .20).

Reexamining the cultural specificity of controlling and autonomy-supportive parenting in the United States and China with a within-individual analytic approach.

This research examines whether prior research may not have detected cultural-specificity in the role of controlling and autonomy-supportive parenting in children's adjustment because of reliance on between-individual analyses. In two longitudinal studies (Ns = 825 and 934) of early adolescents, within-individual analyses were conducted to examine the reciprocal pathways between children's reports of parenting and their reports of their adjustment in the United States and China. Increments in controlling parenting predicted decrements in children's emotional and behavioral, but generally not academic, adjustment over time, with little evidence that this was stronger in the United States than in China. Decrements in children's emotional and behavioral, but generally not academic, adjustment predicted increments in controlling parenting over time similarly in the two countries. There were few overtime pathways involving autonomy-supportive parenting in either direction in either country. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Why is Self-Esteem Higher Among American than Chinese Early Adolescents? The Role of Psychologically Controlling Parenting.

Little is known about why American youth tend to have higher self-esteem than do Chinese youth. This research examined the role of psychologically controlling parenting during early adolescence. 825 youth (48% females; Mage = 12.73 years) in the United States and China reported on their self-esteem and parents' psychological control every 6 months from the fall of 7th grade to spring of 8th grade. Both American and Chinese youth's self-esteem decreased over time, but American youth consistently had higher self-esteem. American parents were less psychologically controlling than were Chinese parents who, unlike American parents, became more psychologically controlling over time. These differences in psychologically controlling parenting contributed to the tendency for American youth to have higher self-esteem than their Chinese counterparts.

Mothers' Goals Influence Their Responses to Children's Performance: An Experimental Study in the United States and Hong Kong.

This research examined the role of mothers' self-worth and self-improvement goals in their responses to children's performance in the United States (80% European American) and Hong Kong (100% Chinese). Mothers (N = 330) were induced to prioritize self-worth or self-improvement among children (Mage = 10.24 years; 48% girls) . Mothers induced to prioritize self-worth (vs. self-improvement) used more success-oriented responses in both regions (ds = 0.53 and 0.35). Mothers induced to prioritize self-improvement (vs. self-worth) used more failure-oriented responses only in the United States (d = 0.29). Mothers' success-oriented responses predicted more positive beliefs and affect in a cognitive task among children (ßs = .10-.18). Taken together, the findings support the importance of parents' goals in the socialization process.

Mothers' Perceptions of the Climate of Their Children's Schools: Covariations With Children's Academic Adjustment in Families of Mexican Origin.

Although Latinx parents' perceptions of the climate of their children's schools may play a role in their children's academic adjustment, research examining this idea is sparse. Every 2 years beginning when children were in fifth grade (Mage  = 10.86 years) until they were in 11th grade, Mexican-origin mothers (N = 674) reported on their perceptions of the climate of their children's schools; information on children's academic adjustment was collected from children and mothers. Multilevel modeling indicated that when mothers had more positive school climate perceptions, their children valued school more and performed better in school, but did not necessarily hold higher educational expectations. The findings suggest the importance of schools in creating welcoming environments for Mexican-origin parents.

Parents' responses to their children's performance: A process examination in the United States and China.

This research examined the idea that children's inferences about their parents' goals for them is a possible mechanism by which parents' responses to their children's performance contribute to children's psychological functioning. American (N = 447; Mage = 13.24 years; 49% girls; 95% European American) and Chinese (N = 439; Mage = 13.36 years; 52% girls) early adolescents reported on parents' responses to their performance, parents' self-worth and self-improvement goals for them, and their psychological functioning (e.g., subjective well-being) twice over a year. The more parents used success-oriented responses, the more their children inferred they held self-worth goals, which predicted enhanced psychological functioning among children over time. The more parents used failure responses, the more their children inferred they held self-improvement goals, but this did not underlie the tendency for parents' failure responses to predict poorer psychological functioning over time. These pathways tended to be stronger in the United States than China. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Parents' peer restriction in the United States and China: A longitudinal study of early adolescents.

This research examined parents' restriction of children's peer relationships in the United States and China. American and Chinese children (N = 934; Mage = 12.67 years) reported on their parents' peer restriction (e.g., limiting children's time with peers) and their behavioral and psychological adjustment 3 times over a year. Increments in parents' peer restriction predicted decrements in children's adjustment over time to a similar extent in the United States and China. However, decrements in children's adjustment predicted increments in parents' peer restriction over time to a greater extent in the United States (vs. China). Thus, it is possible that culture contributes to the socialization process involving parents' restriction of children's peer relationships but only via child-driven pathways. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Early adolescents' stereotypes about teens in Hong Kong and Chongqing: Reciprocal pathways with problem behavior.

To elucidate the processes underlying the cultural construction of adolescence, this research examined youth's stereotypes about teens in Hong Kong and Chongqing, a relatively less developed city in Mainland China. Youth (N = 1,269) reported on their teen stereotypes and problem behavior in the fall and spring of 7th grade. Youth in Hong Kong (vs. Chongqing) saw adolescence as a time of dampened family obligation as well as heightened individuation from parents, disengagement from school, and orientation toward peers. The tendency for youth in Hong Kong (vs. Chongqing) to see teens as less obligated to their family and more disengaged from school undergirded their greater problem behavior over the 7th grade, with problem behavior appearing to contribute to the maintenance of the two stereotypes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Countering Youth's Negative Stereotypes of Teens Fosters Constructive Behavior.

Adolescence can be a time of unconstructive behavior for many youth. This research examined if an intervention countering youth's stereotypes of teens as irresponsible fosters their constructive behavior. In two experimental intervention studies (Ns = 124 and 319) with seventh graders, stereotypes of teens as irresponsible were described as inaccurate portrayals; youth then provided their own observations of teens acting responsibly. Youth in this counterstereotyping intervention (vs. the control) held higher intentions for academic engagement and performed better on an academic task (i.e., a word-search puzzle). Over the 3 days following the intervention, their academic engagement was higher. Youth's risk taking was also reduced. Redirecting youth to see teens as responsible has the potential to provide a foundation for flourishing.

Implications of Chinese and American mothers' goals for children's emotional distress.

This research examined a cultural socialization model in which differences in Chinese and American parents' goals for children foster differences in children's emotional distress via parents' responses to children's performance. Chinese and American mothers and their children (N = 397; Mage = 13.19 years) participated in a 2-wave study spanning a year. Mothers reported on their self-improvement (i.e., children striving to improve) and self-worth (i.e., children feeling worthy) goals, as well as responses to children's performance. Children reported on their emotional distress (e.g., anxiety and depression). Chinese (vs. American) mothers' greater endorsement of self-improvement goals predicted their more frequent use of failure-oriented responses (e.g., highlighting children's mistakes), which accounted for Chinese (vs. American) children's heightened emotional distress over time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

The relation between parents' involvement in children's schooling and children's adjustment: A meta-analysis.

This quantitative synthesis of 448 independent studies including 480,830 families revealed small positive associations (rs = .13 to .23) between parents' naturally occurring involvement in children's schooling and children's academic adjustment (i.e., achievement, engagement, and motivation) that were maintained over time. Parents' involvement was also positively related to children's social (r = .12) and emotional adjustment (r = .17) and negatively related to their delinquency (r = -.15), concurrently. Analyses focusing on children's academic adjustment revealed that different types of involvement (e.g., parents' participation in school events and discussion of school with children) were similarly positively associated with such adjustment. The only exception was that parents' homework assistance was negatively associated with children's achievement (r = -.15), but not engagement (r = .07) or motivation (r = .05). There was little variation due to age, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status in the links between different types of involvement and children's academic adjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

The Role of Mothers' Child-Based Worth in Their Affective Responses to Children's Performance.

This research examined whether American and Chinese mothers' tendencies to base their worth on children's performance contributes to their affective responses to children's performance. Study 1 used daily interviews to assess mothers' warmth (vs. hostility) and children's school performance (N = 197; Mage  = 12.81 years). In Study 2, such affect was observed in the laboratory following children's manipulated performance on cognitive problems (N = 128; Mage  = 10.21 years). The more mothers based their worth on children's performance, the more their warmth (vs. hostility) decreased when children failed in Study 1. This pattern was evident only among Chinese mothers in Study 2. In both studies, child-based worth did not contribute to mothers' affective responses to children's success.

Characteristics of likability, perceived popularity, and admiration in the early adolescent peer system in the United States and China.

High social status youth are often influential in the peer system. Thus, they may serve as agents of cultural socialization if they exhibit characteristics that reflect cultural values (e.g., interdependence). This research examined the behavior that contributes to high social status in the United States and China. At each of 3 waves, 934 early adolescents (M age = 12.7 years at Wave 1) made behavioral (i.e., prosocial behavior and academic engagement) and social status (i.e., likability, perceived popularity, and admiration) nominations of their peers. Positive behavior was predictive of higher social status in both the United States and China, but this was stronger in China. In the United States, there was a tendency for positive behavior to be less predictive of perceived popularity than other forms of social status (e.g., likability); however, this tendency was not evident in China. (PsycINFO Database Record

Youth's Conceptions of Adolescence Predict Longitudinal Changes in Prefrontal Cortex Activation and Risk Taking During Adolescence.

The development of cognitive control during adolescence is paralleled by changes in the function of the lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC). Using a three-wave longitudinal neuroimaging design (N = 22, Mage  = 13.08 years at Wave 1), this study examined if youth's stereotypes about teens modulate changes in their neural activation during cognitive control. Participants holding stereotypes of teens as irresponsible in the family context (i.e., ignoring family obligations) in middle school showed increases in bilateral ventrolateral PFC activation during cognitive control over the transition to high school, which was associated with increases in risk taking. These findings provide preliminary evidence that youth's conceptions of adolescence play a role in neural plasticity over this phase of development.

Examining Socio-Cultural and Neighborhood Factors Associated with Trajectories of Mexican-Origin Mothers' Education-Related Involvement.

Parental involvement in education is an important determinant of youth's academic success. Yet, there is limited knowledge on how Latino parents' education-related involvement changes over time. Using data from a longitudinal study of 674 Mexican-origin families (mother-adolescent dyad; M age of child at Wave 1=10.4, SD = 0.60), we examined trajectories of parental involvement from 5th to 11th grade and the effects of socio-cultural (e.g., family SES and acculturation) and contextual (e.g., neighborhood) factors on these trajectories. Results showed that mothers reduced two aspects of the educational involvement: home-based involvement and academic aspirations, but increased on a third aspect of involvement, resource seeking. Furthermore, family SES, acculturation, and neighborhood context were differentially associated with mothers' involvement at 5th grade and predicted changes in involvement across elementary and high school.

Controlling and Autonomy-Supportive Parenting in the United States and China: Beyond Children's Reports.

Research comparing the predictive power of parents' control and autonomy support in the United States and China has relied almost exclusively on children's reports. Such reports may lead to inaccurate conclusions if they do not reflect parents' practices to the same extent in the two countries. A total of 394 American and Chinese children (Mage  = 13.19 years) and their mothers reported on mothers' controlling and autonomy-supportive parenting in the academic arena; trained observers coded such parenting in the laboratory. Children's reports were associated modestly with mothers' reports and weakly, if at all, with observers' reports in both the United States and China. Parenting predicted children's academic and emotional functioning similarly in the two countries, irrespective of reporter.